Morality and Law Essay

Morality, coming from the Latin word moralitas, which is the basic human concept of what is right and what is wrong. Legislation is law which has been created by a legislature or other governing body. The term may refer to a single law, or the collective body of enacted law, while context is also used to refer to a single law. Honestly it is nearly impossible to have control over the actions of people of what is right and wrong, to totally control that aspect from society you have to start with the youth, and instill the moral character that you want implemented, this will always have to be done through a totalitarian regime. Even then there will be people who just don’t have the same moral character at heart. So yes you can legislate the way people treat others and how they act, but you truly cannot mess with morality through legislature. One reason why you cannot control morals through legislature is that you have a very diverse population in any given country, yes there is a majority factor, but even then you have people of different factions to the majority who differ from them. Since some people have different Religions and some none at all, it is very hard for a government to dictate what is right and wrong, because in some issues it differs. Controversial subjects like abortion and execution bring up what people personally believe are right or wrong, and from person to person it differs. For a society based on freedom of religion, it’s hard to set a definite standard on morals. Another reason that it is hard to legislate morality is that Society and its characteristics are always changing. It is very hard to make something into law if it is always changing. We Christians don’t follow the lord of Moses, and women aren’t stoned for adultery, And the acceptance of things then are different from modern times, and probably in another 5 decades, or outlook of right and wrong will change as we change. As Christians its hard to stay close to the pure morals as the world changes around us, but if we as a people keep morals that do not harm, or hurt others we will have a society that is not dictated by the morals dictated by a government, but by ourselves.

Autocratic Management Have No Place in Today’s Business World- Discuss Essay

Many people think nowadays that autocratic management is bad and doesn’t motivate employees. They believe this type of management will never work in today’s business world. However, it is not entirely possible for today’s world to have everyone as democratic people, nor is it true that most people are ‘Theory Y’ type. Autocratic management used to be the most effective management technique, as well as the simplest. Employees are told what to do and expected not to question back, like in the army. If the worker fails to accomplish the task then he/she either gets fired or disciplined. Managers always expect his/her decisions and orders to be obeyed without question, and everything will go fine. Managers tend to be in control of nearly everything within a firm, and make all the decisions. They also believe that workers are only motivated by incentives such as money and are lazy, which is based on McGregor’s ‘Theory X’ and Taylor’s theory. The advantages of this type of management are that it is quite efficient, as there are no disputes of any sort between the employees and the management. Secondly, the decisions within a firm could be done very quickly and efficiently as there is practically no such thing as a discussion and opinions. The drawbacks of this style of management, however, are that employees won’t have a sense of self-esteem or self-actualization, which is specified in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. It is not possible to fully motivate an employee if this management is used. Also, communications within the firm will almost be non-existent, which is a problem for social needs. Workers will feel bored or demotivated if they even can’t establish any relationship within the workplace. The business world today can be considered as different to the world in the past. However not everything would change in such a swift pace, therefore it is not possible that all employees are ‘Theory Y’ type workers. The initial statement that claims autocratic management has no place in today’s business world is practically impossible to be true, because there are still people in this world that still supports this type of management. There are still lazy and selfish people in the world that fit perfectly into McGregor’s Theory X. Some people might not like the idea of making their own decisions as they fear it might affect the business in a negative way so they would rather rely on management to do all the decision making. Also, workers who, in the past, had worked in an autocratic environment will tend to act the same as their superiors when they become part of the management. It is similar to child abuse, where the child grows up to be a very aggressive person. Autocratic managers obviously wouldn’t like to work in a democratic firm, as the manager tends to refuse any delegation to his/her subordinates. It is believed that autocratic management is very effective in the short-term but would be devastating in the long-term. This is because there is a high chance of a large number of labour turnovers within the business and the morale of existing workers would rapidly decrease. Eventually the employees would probably go on industrial action or, in worse scenarios, sue the business for unfair treatment. The quality of output from subordinates will also decrease, as they are highly demotivated due to the fact that they are like puppets, doing what they’re told. They don’t feel as if they’re a part of the company. It is successful in the short-term because employees are initially motivated by money, which explains the high output. Also, as stated before, decisions are made very quickly therefore the firm can achieve their objectives in no time. Of course, as time passes employees are no longer interested in money that much as before, so they start to get demotivated. In conclusion, there is a place for autocratic management in today’s business world. It is just not as widely accepted as before because humans believe that they can think for themselves and never needs to be commanded by another being. Nevertheless some might say democratic management tends to do better than autocratic management, but that all depends on the employees themselves.

Exploring the use of space Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Exploring the use of space - Essay Example Students eventually end up in places that speak to their inner preferences and the areas that reflect the most amount of qualities subconsciously desired. The fitness obsession that has gripped America for the past several years appears not to have passed up Humber College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning because at Humber, the gymnasium currently appears to represent a larger slice of students' needs, judging by attendance, rather than the gamesroom, which may have been a more popular choice in the past. In the gamesroom, arcade machines play sentry along the walls, offering students dozens of different choices ranging from pinball to the latest combat tournament. Though there is limited seating, the room is designed for standing and moving about and boasts modern features and a large, bright, well-lit space for students to socialize in. Those who patronize the gamesroom do so to relax and socialize in the casual atmosphere. The pressure is off here, and students of all sorts pay a small fee to use the pool tables and arcade games to unwind from their studies and de-stress from life. The every-day gender of the room tends to lean toward the male side of the scale, probably because video games and billiards are more of engaging activities for males rather than females. Thus, the course representation has more of a limited focus around the subjects that men tend to study, such as science or math. The gym, however, attracts all walks... The bright spaces complement the vibrant atmosphere and the fluorescent lighting further promotes the upbeat mentality that young people exude when exercising, be it on rowing machines or at indoor soccer matches. Though the places were built to accommodate students participating in activities on the opposite ends of the entertainment spectrum, the bright, well-lit, modern facilities sported by both structures cultivate a positive atmosphere, whether students play Duke Nukem or badminton. Both buildings also offer students a laid-back area to mutually socialize and perhaps meet up with a new friend or convene with a club. Though there is limited seating, the wide range of diversions offered at each facility give students choices that appeal to many senses. Since students arrive at Humber from all different backgrounds, the variety of activities offered by the school is an important factor when considering higher education. The gamesroom at Humber appeals to many students who like the problem-solving aspects of the digital world and utilize video and arcade games as a way to wind down from the stresses of everyday life for just fifty cents. The pool tables are another diversion well known in the student world for a place to convene and involve one another in the complicated aspects of potting balls with a stick. At a dollar twenty-five per game, billiards engage many students who while away an afternoon or evening with relaxed banter. The gym at Humber allows students to banter while doing whatever fitness activity they prefer, though the conversation isn't quite as loose as that in the game room due to the generally more hurried quality that exercise assumes. However, the programs

Gods Eye View Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gods Eye View - Essay Example The need to explain religious beliefs and culture of people results in the notion of God’s eye view. In the Iliad, every action of mankind was under the influence of a god. Zeus exerts influence upon a Trojan warrior to wound Melaneus and, thus, to break the truce existing between Greeks and Troy; Poseidon intervenes in the war and protects the Greeks from slaughter (Paley, 35). Homer managed to bring out the religious culture of the Greeks and the names of their gods.An analysis of the subject-object principle is essential in order to effectively describe this concept. An examination of human experience should be done, and a conclusion made on what is subjective and objective (Trigg, 51). The notion of subject-objective principle arises from the knowledge that the world consists of objects which are seen and subjects who are mainly observers. As observers, subjects possess knowledge and they can explain any circumstance facing the community.In the Iliad, Homer plays a subject ive role. He is an observer and, therefore, he gives out an analysis of the roles of the Trojan conflict. The Greeks and the gods are the objects. Home sees them and, thus, analyses their roles in the conflict. In describing this notion, the principles of subject and object need to be put in consideration. The world, as construed in the Iliad, is governed by the gods. The Greek gods were part and parcel of the Greeks’ way of life, and this is portrayed in the Trojan War where gods fought on different sides.

A critical review and response to a relevant research paper in Essay

A critical review and response to a relevant research paper in relation to safeguarding. (5000 words) - Essay Example Childcare professional all over the world, have always put the interests of the child first, more so when it comes to ‘physical abuse and risk to life’(Hagan, 2006 pg 24). They are right to be so, since, child safeguarding and protection are more of a right than a necessity. Safeguarding covers the aspects of a child spanning from early life to maturity. Safeguarding focuses on the development, factoring potential risks and vulnerabilities while cultivating an atmosphere ‘focused on children as future citizens’ (Parton, 2011 pg 856 – 857). Child protection is quite essential in its own respect, however, safeguarding outweighs protection since it is curative preventive rather than curative. Cleaver et al., (2009 pg 13) firmly insists that children should be put at the center of the safeguarding process. Parton’s (2011) study purposed to shed light on policy development and debate in England, in relation to child protection and safeguarding. He lays emphasis on the significant change in policy over the years. By having this article published by the British Journal of Social Work, with the authority and command it bears in this field, the article asserts it strength and relevance. It is, however, not enough to vouch for an article based on who, or where it featured; there is the need for further scrutiny and research by all stakeholders. This helps influence practice and even policy. In this essay, therefore, I will critically aim at analysing Parton’s article, giving a summary and a critique thereof. Parton’s main purpose was to reflect in a critical way, the developments in policy, as well as debates in England in matters of child protection and safeguarding (Parton, 2011). By emphasizing on policy changes in a span of 20 years, he aimed at putting the state on the spotlight in matters of its contribution to this change. The researcher neither portrays the state as having failed in matters of policy development, nor does he

Compare and contrast market systems and the role of an economist Research Paper

Compare and contrast market systems and the role of an economist within these systems - Research Paper Example Perfect Competition is a market system defined by a large number of buyers and sellers, similar type of products and a low cost of production (Pass, Lowes & Davies, 1993). In Perfect Competition, the role of an economist is to identify the barriers that may hamper the free play of demand and supply. Monopoly is a market system that comprises of a single seller and a product with no close substitutes (Pass, Lowes & Davies, 1993). Contrary to Perfect Competition, in a Monopoly, the seller commands a significant control over the price of the sold goods or services. Any economist dedicated to capitalism ought to extend a theoretical and ethical resistance in a monopolistic scenario. An Oligopoly is a market system dominated by a few sellers (Pass, Lowes & Davies, 1993). The products sold are usually identical or similar and are mostly associated with high cost investments, thereby discouraging the entry of the new players. The primary job of an economist in an oligopolistic market system should be to strive for a more efficient distribution of resources, thereby enabling the entry of new firms and an augmentation in

Consider the taxation of benefits in kind for employees in the UK, Essay

Consider the taxation of benefits in kind for employees in the UK, should benefits in kind be taxed at all To what extent does - Essay Example This monetary value is included in the total earnings of the employee and then taxed accordingly. There has been a debate whether benefits in kind should be taxed or not. Taxing such benefits is essential because employees cannot be allowed to have numerous benefits but low salaries so that they are taxed less. However, the same can prove to be very unfair when an employee is provided with a one-time benefit in kind and he has to pay too much tax as a result. Another problem arises when an employee is provided with a benefit in kind which is clearly of a great value but is not taxed u/s 62 because it cannot be converted into something having monetary value. Valuation can be very tricky for some articles and it can end up relieving the employee of tax liability for the benefit hence giving him an unfair advantage. There have been numerous cases which had to be settled in court due to the confusion of valuation. The courts have a history of deciding theses cases while remaining within the confines of S 62. This section seems inadequate and unfair on occasions where an accommodation can go untaxed but a mere provision of a suit is taxed because one can be valued and the other cannot. In order to be fair, the valuation system is required to be adequate and broader in scope. Another problem is that the benefit code does not apply to lower paid employees. The lower paid employees are defined in such a way that can include those employees who are not actually lower paid. According to S 217(1), a lower paid employee is one who has an earning rate of less than ?8,500. By the inclusion of benefits obtained under the benefit code, many employees, who have the monetary earnings rate of less than ?8,500, do not fall in the definition of lower paid employees. However, when employees hold benefits of great values, which are such that are not convertible to something having a monetary benefit, the employees fall in the definition of lower paid employees and become exempt from the benefits code. This is a huge problem which can only be solved by broadening the scope of S 62 and the valuation system. Section 64 is also of importance as it deals with the relationship between earnings and benefits code. There may be a case that a single benefit is provided to an employee but it gives rise to both an amount treated as earnings and an amount to be treated as earnings under the benefit code. Section 64(2) provides that in such a case, the amount that is constituted as earnings is to be treated as earnings, and only that portion of the second amount is to be treated as earning under the benefits code which exceeds the first amount. This section actually attempts to avoid the double taxation of a benefit if it falls both under S 62 and S 63. It is not a bad idea to tax such benefits in this way but there can be another way that is simpler to understand. Such benefit could also have been taxed entirely under the benefit code system. This would not have brought any changes to the resulting revenue but it would have been a better tax due to its simplicity. The underlying principle of having the benefit code system is very fair. This system is designed to make employees accountable for their perquisites. However, this system has many loopholes which allow avoidance of tax. Also, employees are also open to the danger of paying more tax than the fair amount. As mentioned above, most of the problems are created by the valuation process. Another problem arises in cases of benefits

Chronic Pancreatitis Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Chronic Pancreatitis - Term Paper Example General Description Chronic Pancreatitis (CP) is a heterogeneous, progressive disorder of the pancreas characterized by a spectrum of symptoms pain, inflammation, diabetes mellitus, and pancreatic damage leading to significant loss of both endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas (Witt and associates, 2007; DiMagno & Dimagno, 2006). Pathology involves fibrosis in the pancreatic parenchyma that manifests irregularly. Other organs in the vicinity are also affected as consequence of the disease that may commence as an individual or a group of symptoms resulting from functional impairment of pancreas. The major clinical symptom of the disease is recurring or persistent pain within the abdomens. The chief cause of CP in the western world is alcohol abuse leading to alcoholic calcific pancreatitis (ACP). The other form of CP known as tropical calcific pancreatitis (TCP) prevalent in tropical countries is of uncertain etiology (Lee, 2011). Based on the risk factors CP is classified by the TIGAR-O (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute, Obstructive) classification system (Nair tet al., 2007). Figure 1: Anatomy of the pancreas (http://www.britannica.com/bps/media-view/68636/1/0/0) Pancreas: Normal Physiology Pancreas is a retroperitoneal structure in the upper abdomen that can broadly be divided into head, body, and tail (figure 1). A major portion of pancreatic tissue comprises of acini (80%) that are responsible for the exocrine functions of the pancreas. Groups of aciniform spherical lobules that are interspersed with connective tissue. The central ducts of each lobule in which the secretions of the surrounding acinar cells accumulate, join to extralobular ducts that finally drain into the main pancreatic duct. The main pancreatic duct carrying the secreted digestive enzymes enters the hepatopancreatic ampulla along with bile duct. At the duodenal papilla, the enzymes enter the duodenum (Adda et al., 1984). The endocrine functions of the pancreas are performed by the richly vascularized islets of Langerhans. The islets of Langerhans comprise of beta, alpha and delta cells that secrete hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin respectively. The most abundant beta cells (73-75%) are centrally located and are surrounded by alpha cells (18-20%) and delta cells (4-6%). The rich vascularization allows for the transfer of hormones from the islets while the specific arrangement of the alpha, beta and delta cells allows paracrine regulation of hormones. Thus high concentrations of the insulin secreted by the central beta cells inhibit glucagon release from the peripheral alpha cells. The venous blood flow from the islets of Langerhans reaches the hepatic portal vein, rendering the liver the prime target for the impact of pancreatic hormones. The rich innervations of the pancreas ensure the release of several neurotransmitters in the pancreas that regulate the release and concentrations of hormones (Case, 200 6). During normal physiology, in the basal state, the secreted pancreatic fluid is mildly alkaline comprising a few proteins. Gastric distension and acid production during eating stimulate duodenal S cells causing the release of secretin. Under the influence of the secretin, a large quantity of the bicarbonate-rich watery liquid or the hydraulic secretion is released from the ductal cells of the smaller ducts.  

Earthquake in Chile on economic growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Earthquake in Chile on economic growth - Essay Example Myriad tidal waves, following the earthquake, struck many other villages and towns and victimized â€Å"fisherman and farm workers†¦as well as campers and backpackers (Chile 2010). In comparison to the governmental response to the earthquake in Haiti a few months back, the Chilean government was better able, albeit imperfectly, to respond to the disaster and help the people. In response to widespread looting in the days that followed, the government of Michelle Bachelet dispatched the army to keep the peace. The task of rebuilding the country will be immense. The earthquake â€Å"caused $15-30 billion in damage, or up to 20% of Chile’s GDP† (Chile 2010), an amount that may still climb once a more accurate picture of the damage emerges. Affected sectors of the economy include both the timber industries and viticulture. With approximately $11 billion held in a sovereign fund, the government at least has some resources to draw on in order to help rebuild the country. Developed by Roy F. Harrod and Evsey Domar during and after the Second World War, the Harrod-Domar model seeks to explain economic growth as not being linear but rather as being chaotic. It asserts that â€Å"even† growth is neither a reliable event nor a naturally determined one. Popular in the 1940’s and 1950’s it has probably influenced the historiography of the reasons for the Great Depression ending and the economic expansion of the 1950’s. The war brought the economic growth that ended the Great Depression. Furthermore, it is commonly held that when the troops came home they had a large amount of unspent savings. When they started to spend these savings, the economy took off. Thus the Harrod-Domar model would hold that a high level of savings, or available capital, is an engine of growth. Investment forces capital to build up thus spurring economic expansion. In developing economies, like Chile for example, a great amount of available labor can help increase output without causing

Theory of Title Essay Example for Free

Theory of Title Essay The State of Arkansas was selected as the example state because of its proximity to surrounding states of Tennessee, Mississippi, Missouri, and Okalahoma and the frequency in which individuals change their residency between the surrounding States. The research examines the type of real estate transfer theory practiced in the State of Arkansas by reviewing relevant case laws, mortgage practices and supplementary materials dealing with contract law and collection of rents. The literature tends to suggest that Arkansas does that follow any particular lien theory and utilizes a combination of each of the three lien theories. The Outline I. Introduction II. General definitions of three theories governing title transfer in United States of America: a. Title theory. b. Lien Theory c. Intermediate theory IIIGeneral effects of theories in practice a. Effects for the lender b. Effects for the borrower IV. Transfer of title in the State of Arkansas a. Prevalent theory used in State of Arkansas b. Review of laws and regulation governing transfer of title in Arkansas . Throughout the United States the rate of housing foreclosures or mortgage defaults continues to rise at an alarming rate. This rise in foreclosures and mortgage defaults in many instances can be attributed to a weakening economy. Many individuals enticed by a strong economy freely entered agreements to purchase homes with little regard to the actual terms of their agreement. A picture of these individuals would usually find young adults in a two to three person household, who finally obtained the opportunity to live the American dream and took full advantage of that opportunity. For many of these individuals this may have been their first home purchase or with decreasing interest rates they believed they could finally afford to remodel their present home to be their dream home. These same individuals knew little about twists and turns of purchasing a home or mortgage finance laws. Many did not use lawyers and simply relied on the advice of the lenders, mortgage companies or real estate agents. Unfortunately, the economy failed to cooperate as those families with two person incomes dropped to one person incomes and those adjustable rate mortgages increased beyond household income. The end result is a slow housing market with individuals actually losing their homes in drastic numbers or selling their homes at reduced prices, which usually means a lost for the average home owner. It affects their ability to purchase a new home and decreases the amount of funds that will be available to local economies through the purchase of other consumer goods. Because our country has become so mobile, allowing individuals to move from place to place with ease, many individuals had no problem locating new areas in various states to call home. Examples of the easy mobility concept are individuals living in the State of Tennessee who find it extremely easy to purchase a home in Arkansas or Mississippi and maintain their jobs in Tennessee. In fact, with the growing pressure to leave the fast life and crime often found in large Metropolitan areas, individuals jumped at the opportunity when confronted with advertisements from small suburbs or rural cities which boosted of the quiet simple life to raise their families while only minutes away from the recreation, entertainment and lucrative employment opportunities of the Metropolitan cities. It was the dream of a life time that many simply could not pass up. Understanding mortgage finance laws of the State an individual intend to purchase a home or understanding mortgage lending theories is extremely necessary and important to any individual relocating to another state or those who have lived in a state and purchase their first home. Unfortunately, most individuals seeking to relocate assume and wrongly so, that the laws regarding mortgage finance are the same throughout the United States. They are unaware of the procedures or consequences involved in retaining their property should they become delinquent in their mortgage payments. When an individual moves from one state to another they subject themselves to the laws of the state in which they are doing business. However, in some states an individual may be able to specifically contract that the mortgage or contract may be governed by the laws of another state. This is seldom used for individual residential mortgages and used primarily in some commercial transactions that occur in another state. Mortgage laws in their new state may or may not be to their advantage and they should know the advantages and disadvantages before they decide on purchasing a home in their chosen state. This is also true for businesses financial institutions lending funds, and other entities crossing state lines to conduct business in other states, i. e. , purchasing businesses or other property or obtaining loans in other states to conduct business in the State of Tennessee. The general belief of the average individual is that once they purchase a home or obtain a mortgage, the title to the property is placed in the name of the borrower and that a lender simply obtains a lien on the property and can only foreclose on the property when and if the borrower is unable to make payments and then, and only when an action is filed in a court of law. This may or may not be true based on the laws and practices of the State in which the transaction originates. Thus, a review of the laws governing the state in which the individual intends to obtain its mortgage will prove extremely beneficial. However a greater benefit will be obtained if the home buyer seeks the services of a licensed attorney or a home buyer counselor. This senior project has chosen the state of Arkansas to review its laws regarding the transfer of title in real property. Arkansas was selected because of its proximity to the State of Tennessee and Mississippi and the ease in which residents move their residency from one state to the other. Thesis Statement) Individuals entering into financial agreements to obtain funds to purchase real property should always know which of the three theories of real property transfer is practiced in the state in which they intend to obtain a mortgage. Literature Review The purpose of this senior project is to first review the three general theories governing real estate transfers as practiced throughout the United States, and how they can affect the transfer of property from a lenders perspective and from a borrower’s perspective. The project will also review the present status of mortgage lending and home buying throughout the United States and how the theories of title transfer has affected the present market. The project uses the State of Arkansas as the example state for its review and analysis. The project will explore and review how the laws in the State of Arkansas’ differ from other states in the United States and review the effects of such laws on individuals and businesses doing business within the State of Arkansas. Determining what theory is utilized within a particular state when obtaining a mortgage or transferring real property will prove extremely beneficial and alleviate serious problems for both the lender and borrower, should problems arise regarding ownership of the property, or in foreclosure proceeding. Knowing ones rights will assist the homebuyer in understanding what can happen to their property if they should become delinquent in their mortgage payments and allow them an opportunity to attempt to save their property or their equity interest should a foreclosure action be filed against them. The review will also examine how the failure of borrowers to understand property transfer theories can have a devastating affect on their ability to retain ownership of the property during a foreclosure action. Information released from Foreclosure Data online and posted on October 19th, 2007 indicate that the growing number of mortgage foreclosures has begun to affect more than just residential homeowners, â€Å" in some residential blocks where ten to twelve homes in a twenty-five home block, have ‘bank owned’ for sale signs on their lawns. The rising rate of foreclosures throughout the United States provide justification for the idea of borrowers taking more responsibility in determining their rights and the potential consequences when entering mortgage contracts where ever they live. In order to understand what happens if default occurs residents must always be aware of the three basic theories practiced throughout the United States relating to transfer of title and then attempt to understand which theory is actually practiced in the state in which they desire to purchase real property. This is especially relevant as many state fail to practice a single theory and combine several theories to develop a single procedure for dealing with property transfer in their state. For the most part title theory of a particular state is determine by case law, even in situations where states have adopted statues defining how title transfers will be conducted in their state. General Definitions of title transfer theories Following a broad adoption of English pure title theory by the American States, three theories of title have evolved. According to the Restatement Third of Property and (Mortgages), the evolution of title theory from the English common law has served to reduce the rights of the mortgagee under the ‘pure’ or original title theory of England. The pure title theory worked a defeasible conveyance of the fee to the mortgagee, which obtained legal title, the right to possession, and the right to collect the rents and profits. (2) This evolution included the development to (a) lesser title theory, (b) lien theory, and (c) intermediate theory. While the three theories are useful for comparisons, implementation of the theories is by no means standard. The practical effect of the theories has been minimized because in many jurisdictions the harshness of pure title theory has been removed by statue or by case law or in many instances the drafters of mortgages have learned to achieve the advantages of the alternative theories at the time the mortgage documents are prepared and signed. According to Sandy Gadow, an escrow expert, and a member of the American Land Title Association, in a title theory state, the borrower does not actually keep title to the property during the loan term. The seller gives the buyer/borrower a deed to the property but when the borrower signs the mortgage for the loan the borrower gives the title back to the mortgage holder. The lender then holds title to the property, as security only, until all loan payments have been made. During that time the borrower has the right to possession of the property, and the lender delivers the deed back to the borrower only after the loan obligation has been satisfied. (3) In most states the instrument used is known as a trust deed. The lender actually maintains ownership of the property until the debt is paid in full. The process is quite different in a lien title state. The Restatement (third) of Property, section 4. 1 (1997) indicates that in a lien theory state, the buyer holds the deed to the property during the mortgage term. The buyer promises to make all payments to the lender and the mortgage becomes a lien on the property, but title remains with the buyer. The lender’s lien is removed once the payments of all loan payments have been completed. (id 2) The two theories are similar in that they allow the borrower to actually possess the property but differ regarding actual ownership of the property. In a title theory state the borrower actually owns the property with the lender retaining the deed only for security whereas in a lien theory the buyer retains the deed and the lender retains a lien on the property. The third theory, the Intermediate theory can be considered a compromise theory between the title theory and the lien theory. Again, according to Sandy Gadow, an escrow expert, and a member of the American land Title Association, â€Å"the title remains with the borrower, but the lender may take back title to the property if the borrower defaults on the loan. † (Id at 3). An Arkansas Law review article in 1992 examines the effects of conflict of laws, and indicates that in an intermediate jurisdiction the mortgage is a lien until default, as it would in a lien theory state. Upon default, legal title passes by operation of law to the mortgagee and with the title comes the right to possession, rents and profits. (4) In her article, Sandy Gadow argues that â€Å"Foreclosure proceedings in a lien theory state may be more difficult for the lender than a title theory state, due to the fact that the buyer is holding title to the land and not the lender. † ( Id at 3). The theory prevents the lender from entering onto the property and taking possession of the property at will. The lender is forced to take legal steps to regain ownership of the property. The theory actually gives the borrower more time before they are forced to give up the property, and they also can continue to maintain possession of the property and keep any rents collected as a result of their ownership until a legal foreclosure action is completed. Today, mortgagees customarily profit from interest. Possession by the mortgagor is commonplace in title theory states, although some states still hold that possession remains with the ortgagee as an incident of legal title. Another real estate treatise reports that title theory mortgagees can take possession of the mortgaged property upon default and before foreclosure. (6) A borrower to a mortgage should always concern themselves with which theory will give the greatest ownership interest in their property and allow them to retain in terest in the property as long as possible. Any theory that immediately transfers the right to possession, fee simple ownership and any other legal rights from the borrower back to the lender are not in the best interest of the borrower. The literature thus far appears to suggest that a lien theory state would provide the better advantage to a borrower in that the borrower usually retains a right to ownership and possession until foreclosure is accomplished in a court of law. Many states within the United States adopt a lien theory when transferring property. However, like Arkansas, these same states do not exercise a hard and fast rule on the use of a title transfer theory. However, most states can be grouped in one of the three title theory categories. In general throughout the United States, approximately of the fifty states only sixteen states follow a lien theory, with the remaining thirty four (34) states being described a title theory states. More specifically of the six states that share a boundary with the State of Arkansas, which include: Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Tennessee, Mississippi and Louisiana, five of the six states are described as practicing a title theory in property transfers, and only one of those states, Louisiana is described as following the lien theory in title transfers. In Arkansas, in the case of Bank of Oak Grove V. Wilmot State Bank, a case considered as an authority on Arkansas Mortgage law, the court refused to adopt a particular theory on the formalities of what the court termed the â€Å"broad and undefined a principle as lien versus title theories of mortgages†. (5) In general Arkansas courts do not appear to have frequently discussed title theory since a search of Westlaw for â€Å"title theory in Arkansas† produces only Bank of Oak Grove v. Wilmot. However, several cases align themselves and follow the decision of the Bank of Oak Grove case and its findings. Such cases cite the bank of Oak Grove case as an endorsement of title theory use in the State of Arkansas. Fully discerning the nature of Arkansas’ theory of title requires a discussion of whether a mortgage is merely a lien (lien theory) or whether it passes owner-type interest and powers to the mortgagee. A survey of Arkansas mortgage case law reveals two tracks of cases supporting different conclusions about whether a mortgage is only security for a debt. As early as 1856, equity held that a mortgage is only security for a debt. (7) By 1866, the Arkansas Supreme Court established that â€Å"now in both law and equity† a mortgage is mere security for a debt, and removed the presumption that a mortgagee takes possess if there is no proof other wise. (8) Eighteen years after Trapnall, the court said that the legal estate in mortgaged property passes to the mortgagee and that possession follows the egal title; the same was said 45 years after Trapnall in a 1911 case, Whittington v. Flint. (9) If it follows that legal title not only delivered possession but also delivered what a 1988 Arkansas Federal court interpreting Arkansas law called the incidents of possession (rents, profits and what appears as beneficial interests), Arkansas would have been a title theory state. The Arkansas Supreme Court has not overturned these cases, and the Arkansas Attorney General was citing the case as late as 1998. 10) After Wilson, the Arkansas Supr eme Court held that â€Å"in equity† a mortgage is only a security interest, and that the mortgagor is entitled to deal with the land as its owner, entitled to rents and profits and alienation as long as he is in possession and he and takers under him do not impair the rights of the mortgagee. (11) The 1959 update of a key Arkansas mortgage title treatise follows that a mortgage is a mere security interest. The mortgagors were treated as owners in a 1980 case that characterized an absolute deed held for security purposes as an equitable mortgage, finding that the father who purchased the real estate was the mortgagee and holding that the divorcing son and daughter-in law must split the property. This inferred that the son and daughter-in-law were mortgagors and in effect owners of joint property. (13) The lack of clarity on some points suggests that mortgagors should not rely on the formalities of title theory in the State of Arkansas. Possession, Redemption and Rents as they relate to title transfer in Arkansas Better understanding Arkansas law requires discussions about possession, redemption and rents. The custom in Arkansas is that the mortgagor takes possession, but case law suggests that possession may be based on the terms of the agreement or interest rather than accruing automatically to the holder of legal title. More recent opinions mitigate towards possession being retained by the mortgagor. Similarly, the Arkansas Attorney General opined that the 1980 Nelson court took a â€Å"common sense approach† holding that the mortgagor retains a possessory interest that makes him â€Å"at least the equitable owner. † (14) This suggests a conclusion that possession can be devised by the contract language, which can grant immediate possession or possession upon default. Not withstanding the language, mortgagees are likely to intend that possession be in the mortgagor, and mortgagees are likely to want to avoid mortgagee in possession status and the duties that derive from it. To preserve its collateral, the mortgagee should include clauses providing for (1) appointment of a receiver; and (2) right to enter and inspect. A power of sale clause may be advisable; however, the Arkansas Code implies a power of sale in every mortgage of real property. (15) Arkansas does not follow title or lien theory or intermediate theory as the latter is described by secondary sources. Like title theory, the mortgagee appears to secure legal title. The more recent cases appear to treat the mortgagor as the owner as would be the case under lien theory. Arkansas appears to practice its own brand of intermediate theory in which the incidents of possession follow actual or constructive possession. Drafting may govern possession and rents in Arkansas law. The literature and case law indicates that the custom in Arkansas is that the mortgagor takes possession, but case law suggests that possession may be based on the terms of the agreement or intent rather than accruing automatically to the holder of legal title. In the case of Whittington (1884) and Wilson (1911 held that legal title passes to the mortgagee and with it possession, unless there is a reservation of the right to occupancy. Id 9) Trapnall held in 1866 that there is no presumption that the mortgagee takes possession. (Id. 8) Most recent opinions mitigate towards possession being retained by the mortgagor. The First Federal case addressed the incidents of possession, saying that in a â€Å"garden variety mortgage,† the borrower has â€Å"retained all of the incidents of possession including the right to rents, profits, and crops,† and he may do with them as he pleases until the mortgagee takes possession, at which point these incidents pass to the mortgagee. Similarly, the Arkansas Attorney General opined that the 1980 Nelson court took a â€Å"common sense approach† holding that the mortgagor retains a possessory interest that makes him â€Å"at least the equitable owner. † (Id 14) Neither opinion states that the mortgagor and mortgagee can not agree otherwise. This suggests a conclusion that possession can be devised by the contract language, which can grant immediate possession or possession upon default. In comparing the cases, it may be helpful to note the references to the language of the agreements, and consider that the language of Arkansas mortgages has varied greatly. Whittington states that â€Å"possession follows the legal title, unless controlled by stipulations in the deed, or by the apparent intention of the parties. † (Id. 9) It is an old case that may have succumbed to the presumption that Trapnall dismissed. American Jurisprudence publishes in its form book what it titles the Arkansas-Mortgage and the Arkansas-mortgage-Traditional form. The traditional form is more in the form of a sale agreement stating that mortgagee â€Å"does grant, bargain, sell, and convey to mortgagee, and to its successors and assigns forever† the mortgaged property to have and to hold the same to mortgagee, and to its successors and assigns forever. † It then provides the conditions under which the â€Å"sale† shall become null and void. (16) Notwithstanding the language, mortgagees are likely to intend that possession be in the mortgagor, and mortgagees are likely to want to avoid mortgagee in possession status and the duties that derive from it. It is evident that despite the rules and statues individuals seeking to obtain a mortgage will need to be mindful of what the law is and if they desire that something different needs to occur on any matter, if the issue is addressed in the contract agreements and agreed to by both parties, the courts will upon the original intent of the parties entering the contract. Treatment of Rents in Mortgage transfer In understanding actual practice regarding ownership interests one must also review and discuss how rent is treated in the State of Arkansas.

The Da Vinci Surgical System Nursing Essay

The Da Vinci Surgical System Nursing Essay Imagine a situation where you have just been diagnosed with an illness requiring surgery. You have only two options: either to conduct a traditional surgery with large incisions, or laparoscopy which uses small incisions but is only available for simple procedures. However, you now have a viable option to conduct a minimally invasive surgery, many thanks to the advancement of surgical technology. Minimally invasive surgery is a concept existed prior to the inception of robots, referring to surgical procedures that are conducted by avoiding long cuts as surgeons introduce long-handled medical instruments to operate on body tissues via small incisions. The Da Vinci surgical system, also known as a telesurgical system, is currently the pioneer device in the robotic field made by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. A telesurgical system requires the surgeon to maneuver the robot during the procedure instead of allowing it to function from an encoded software. This surgical system is named such as a tribute to Leonardo Da Vinci, whom broke new ground in anatomical accuracy and the epitome of the era of Renaissance. He was highly regarded for his ability to bring life to his architectural drawings of futuristic automations. This particular device is meticulously designed to aid in complex surgery such as cardiac valve repair, prostatectomies and gynecologic surgical procedures by a minimal approach of 1-2cm incisions. Such ultimate breakthrough opens a new platform, beneficiating patients, surgeons, hospitals and the medicine field as a whole. Imagine major surgery performed with minimal incisions on the patients body. Imagine a faster treatment, better recovery rate and minimal duration spent in the hospital as well as better clinical outcomes. This is all made possible with the inception of Da Vinci surgical system. Da Vinci reforms surgery. It gives a whole new concept to surgery, omitting the painstaking experiences that patients had to face before its invention. In this proposal, we will be introduced to this bizarre medical equipment that is capable of improving the surgical field, in terms of its history, features, unprecedented benefits, criticisms, the future as well as recommendation of the latest Da Vinci surgical system. History Robot assisted surgical procedure first hit its limelight in 1985 when the PUMA 560 robotic surgical arm was used in a neurosurgical biopsy which is non-laparoscopic. The successful surgery posed greater precision which ultimately lead to the first laparoscopic procedure involving a robotic system, a cholescystecotomy, in 1987. It is then in the following year, the same PUMA system performed a transurethral resection. Consequently in 1990, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved its first robotic surgical system, AESOP system, the brainchild of Computer Motion for its endoscopic surgical procedure. The Da Vinci surgery system became known in 2000 for being the first system approved by the FDA for general laparoscopic surgery. This approval became groundbreaking as the Da Vinci system is all-encompassing of surgical instruments and necessary equipments for surgery. It has been approved in urological surgeries, general laparoscopic surgeries, general non-cardiovascular thoracosopic surgeries and thoracoscopically assisted cardiotomy procedures, applicable to both adults and pediatric procedures. Da Vinci surgical system is a proud creation of Intuitive Surgery, Inc. This company is the global pioneer in robotic-assisted minimally invasive surgery (MIS). Initially, the US Army funded Intuitive Surgical to develop a system to perform battlefield surgery. However, they realized the potential of such technology to accelerate the application of a minimally invasive surgery. Intuitive Surgical was then established in 1995 to further develop this technology to a wider range of procedures. The Da Vinci surgical system was launched in January 1999 and it became the first robotic surgical system to gain approval by the FDA for general laparoscopic surgery. Subsequently, the FDA cleared this device for chest surgery, cardiac procedures, urologic and gynecologic procedures. Headquartered in Sunnyvale, California, Intuitive Surgical expanded its force by acquiring its principal competitor, Computer Motion, reinforcing its world monopoly in robotic-assisted surgical systems. It sustains growth excessively by 25% and has successfully expanded to more than 900 academic and community hospital sites. As of today, more than a thousand Da Vinci Systems are installed in hospitals worldwide. Problem Statement In tandem with the advent in science and technology, the field of robotic surgery is mushrooming. Robotic surgery is defined as the use of robot to assist in surgery procedures. The need for robotic surgery is subsequently demanded in the medicine field to overcome problems arise from surgery with traditional approach. Two decades ago, surgeons began developing a concept known as Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) in which microscopic cameras called endoscopes or laparoscopes were slotted into the patients body through small ports. However, MIS stumbled upon major roadblocks to advancement as surgeons were operating through standard two-dimensional monitor that lacked visualization while fixed-wrist instruments and poor ergonomic design limited the surgeons dexterity. Consequently, MIS was deemed suitable for narrow range of surgical procedures. To counter this problem while maintaining the concept of MIS, robot-assisted surgery was then make-believe. With the inception of Da Vinci sur gical system, the medical and surgical fields have revolutionized wherein surgeons and patients both benefit from it. Da Vinci Surgical System Mechanism Surgeons Console This is where the surgeon is seated in a comfortable manner while scrutinizing the bodys interior at a magnified 3D image through highly powered objective lenses. The systems three-dimensional and high resolution view screen enables the surgeon to observe the incision area in clarity. By manipulating the master controls located beneath the display screen, the surgeons hands and wrists are positioned perpendicularly to his or her eyes. The master controls consist of a pair of foot pedals and hand controllers each. The surgery can then be performed as Da Vinci translates the surgeons open-surgery hand movements from the master control, which acts like forceps, into a much precise movements of miniaturized instruments at the patient-side cart. The following illustrates a surgeons console from the Da Vinci surgical system. Patient-side Cart The patient-side cart includes three or four interactive robotic arms that function to execute the surgeons commands from the surgeons console. Two or three of the arms are designated to hold medical instruments such as scalpel, scissors and other dissecting materials; while the remaining arm is an endoscopic camera, equipped with a pair of lens, also known as the EndoWrist, provides a stereoscopic vision on the display screen. The laparoscopic arms shaft at the 1-2cm operating ports, omitting the need for using tissue of the incision walls in the patient for leverage, thereby minimizing tissue damage. Such miniaturized operating arms proven a significant advancement from earlier inventions such as the PUMA 560. Apart from that, assisting medical officers will facilitate in incorporating the right instruments for surgery, provide the 1-2cm port in the patients body and supervise the situation to eradicate errors as the tools are being utilized. EndoWrist Instruments Patented by Intuitive Surgical, the EndoWrist Instruments are another exclusive feature of the Da Vinci System that allows surgeons to operate with dexterity over a maximum range of motion. Designed after the structure of a human wrist, this device can expand beyond the capabilities of a human hand by providing a plethora of surgical techniques. Internal cables of the EndoWrist Instruments mimic the human tendons, providing specific surgical mission such as clamping, accurate suturing, dissection and tissue manipulation. This state-of-the-art device has extraordinary features, such as 7 degrees of freedom motion, 90 degrees of articulation, intuitive motion, fingertip control, motion scaling and tremor reduction. All these contribute to a smooth running surgery as surgeons operate with ambidexterity and unparalleled precision. This device is also available in a broad range of selection according to the requirement of a particular surgery. The product line includes various forceps, ne edle drivers, scissors, monopolar and bipolar electrocautery instruments, scalpels; all available in 5 mm and 8 mm diameters to heed a surgeons need. This instrument is also user-friendly in terms of recognizing different types and functions of instruments incorporated to the Da Vinci system. It detects the instruments via a unique interface; therefore it is easier to identify instruments that require replacements. Vision System EndoWrist Instruments are first introduced into the patients target anatomy through a series of dime-sized incisions to allow viewing of the bodys interior at a highly magnified three-dimensional image. These images are displayed via the vision system, designated with high-resolution three-dimensional endoscope and image processing equipments, previewing the exact condition of the body. By having image synchronizers, illuminators with adjustable intensities and camera control units, the operating images are well-enhanced, offering superior visualization of over a thousand frames of the instrument position per second. The vision system also has a built-in video processor that filters background noise. Meanwhile, the endoscope is designated prevent fogging by regulating the temperature of the endoscope tip. Surgeons are allowed to rapidly switch views on the display screen through a simple use of the foot pedal. How The Mechanism Function As A Whole In short, the Da Vinci system consists of four main mechanismssurgeons console, patient-side cart, EndoWrist instruments and the vision system. These features function as a whole in the same room under the conduct of a surgeon and few supporting medical officers. The relationship between the four mechanisms is illustrated as shown in the adjacent figure. Advantages Enhanced Visualization Target anatomy in the body interior is previewed in true-to-life three-dimensional vision, forming crisp images in immense clarity. The endoscopic camera also offers immersive view of the surgical field with superior contrast and magnification for an accurate identification of tissue layers. Such improvement enables surgeons to perform dissection or reconstruction of delicate tissues with much precision, regardless of the space allotted. Steady Movements; Take Control. The limitation of human hands is overcome by Da Vincis ability to reduce tremors and control movements via proprietary EndoWrist instruments, enhancing control and intuitive motion. This enables pervasive use of avant-garde techniques, further reducing the learning curve since complex procedures can now be handled in an open surgery approach. Solo Surgery and two-handed intracoporeal suturing can become standard practice for interns with the addition of a fourth arm from the Da Vinci surgical system. First-Class Ergonomics Surgeon need not worry about the fatigue occurring from long hour surgery as the Da Vinci surgical system is designed to allow them to operate while seated in a comfortable posture. Such clinical advantage also implies that less surgeon assistance is required because medical instruments are mounted to the robotic arms. Moreover, with the robotic arms offering extra mechanical strength that is beyond human capabilities, higher-BMI patients can be treated in a minimally invasive approach. Supreme Hospitality Inception of Da Vinci marks a historical breakthrough to hospitals worldwide by increasing productivity and operational efficiencies. Patients can enjoy diminished post-operative pain, decreased risk of infections and surgery complications, less complicated nursing care and faster rate of recovery. Hospital stays are largely reduced by half, thus decreasing hospital costs by approximately 33%. Criticism Like many things good, Da Vinci surgical system also has its drawbacks. While this evolving technology has become almost like a necessity to medical services, critics are questioning the lacking of long-term results studies to prove Da Vinci superior to laparoscopic surgery. Besides, this technology costs an average of $1.3 million, excluding the several hundred thousand dollars of annual maintenance fees. There is also no existing data to justify the increased costs and hospitals are having a hard time recovering the high cost. According to The American Journal of Surgery, 75% of surgeons claimed that they felt financially limited by any system that cost more than $500,000 Furthermore, a large portion of surgeons performed the surgery via Da Vinci surgical system on approximately 12 to 18 patients before they feel comfortable utilizing the device. Though training programs are offered by Intuitive Surgical, most surgeons find themselves intimidated by this device as they felt obstructed from grasping the texture of body tissues and ultimately, the loss of tactile or haptic sensation. The patient-side cart also occupies a large space that hinders the movement of assistant surgeons access to the patient. The safety aspects of Da Vinci surgical system remain doubtful to most people as they still do not trust the ability of a robot wholly. Though this system operates in a Master-Slave relationship, some still find it unacceptable to risk lives of patients as robots have the potential to be fatal should they malfunction. Hence, a huge amount of cost is forked out to reduce these risks by adding safety features, making them financially inaccessible to some physicians. Apart from that, surgery utilizing this device takes forty to fifty minutes longer compared to traditional open surgery. Recommendation Conclusion The Future The Da Vinci surgical system offers a surgery experience like never before to practicing physicians. Its brilliance in translating the surgeons hand movements from the console into corresponding micro-movements of EndoWrist instruments incorporated in the patients body interior has transformed the surgical fields in many aspects. A major outlook for this invention is its potential to perform remote operations, as what it was initially designed for. This long distance operation can be made possible by linking the patient and doctor through a series of ports from the Da Vinci surgical system. Say, a doctor from United States will be able to operate on a patient from across the globe, such as Africa. However this is still at its theoretical stage and will be developed in near future to globalize the surgical field. Albeit the criticisms, the Da Vinci surgical system is deemed as a mere preview of what to expect from future technology. From the high cost to the lack of touch sensation from surgeons feedback, the current Da Vinci surgical system has many hurdles to overcome before it can be wholly integrated into the healthcare system to satisfy everyones needs. To name a few, questions such as misconduct liability, credentialing, training prerequisites and licensing requirements for telesurgeons are still puzzling. However, Intuitive Surgical promises an improvement of Da Vinci surgical system in terms of size, haptic sensation and cost as their present focus before dealing with other relevant problems that are causing ambiguity to users. Although robotic surgery is still at its infancy, many of its known advantages are sustaining its progress and it has verified itself to be worth the value, particularly in areas unattainable to traditional laparoscopic procedures. For instance, the complexity of movement controls and manifold degrees of freedom by the Da Vinci surgical system offers minimal tremor and increased mobility which made it possible to go ahead of the human capacity. Robotic technology is aimed to bring surgery into the digital era and whether its advantageous usage can overcome the cost to execute it remains to be worked out. Despite being feasible to demands, further forthcoming research investigating efficacy and safety must partake for robotic surgery to take full root over conventional therapy. Appendix On the Market Two robotic surgical systems have received FDA clearance to be marketed in the United States: The da Vinci Surgical System, made by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif., is cleared to perform surgery under the direction of a surgeon. The ZEUS Robotic Surgical System, made by Computer Motion, Inc. of Goleta, Calif., has been cleared by the FDA to assist surgeons. [The] da Vinci is cleared to assist in advanced surgical techniques such as cutting and suturing [sewing], says Neil Ogden, chief of the FDAs General Surgery Devices Branch in the Center for Devices and Radiological Health. ZEUS is cleared to assist in grasping, holding, and moving things out of the way, but isnt cleared for cutting or suturing. Clinical trials on ZEUS are underway with the goal of obtaining FDA clearance to assist in the performance of advanced surgical tasks in the United States, according to Paul Nolan, senior director of customer training and education at Computer Motion. Heres a profile of each system: The da Vinci Surgical System In July 2000, the FDA cleared da Vinci as an endoscopic instrument control system for use in laparo-scopic (abdominal) surgical procedures such as removal of the gallbladder and surgery for severe heartburn. In March 2001, the FDA cleared da Vinci for use in general non-cardiac thoracoscopic (inside the chest) surgical procedures surgeries involving the lungs, esophagus, and the internal thoracic artery. This is also known as the internal mammary artery, a blood vessel inside the chest cavity. In coronary bypass surgery, surgeons detach the internal mammary artery and reroute it to a coronary artery. In June 2001, the FDA cleared da Vinci for use during laparascopic removal of the prostate (radical prostatectomy). The da Vinci is intended to assist in the control of several endoscopic instruments, including rigid endoscopes, blunt and sharp dissectors, scissors, scalpels, and forceps. The system is cleared by the FDA to manipulate tissue by grasping, cutting, dissecting and suturing. In use, a surgeon sits at a console several feet away from the operating table and manipulates the robots surgical instruments. The robot has three hands attached to a free-standing cart. One arm holds a camera (endoscope) that has been passed into the patient through small openings. The surgeon operates the other two hands by inserting fingers into rings. The arms use a technology called EndoWrist flexible wrists that surgeons can bend and twist like human wrists. The surgeon uses hand movements and foot pedals to control the camera, adjust focus, and reposition the robotic arms. The da Vinci has a three-dimensional lens system, which magnifies the surgical field up to15 times. Another surgeon stays beside the patient, adjusting the camera and instruments if needed. There are 50 da Vinci systems placed in U.S. medical centers, 34 placed in Europe and five placed in Asia. ZEUS Robotic Surgical System The FDA cleared ZEUS in October 2001 to assist in the control of blunt dissectors, retractors, graspers, and stabilizers during laparoscopic and thoracoscopic surgeries. ZEUS has three robotic arms that are mounted on the operating table. One robotic arm is called the Automated Endoscopic System for Optimal Positioning Robotic System (AESOP). AESOP is a voice-activated robot used to hold the endoscope. The FDA cleared AESOP to hold and position endoscopes in 1994, and voice activation was added later. ZEUS differs from the da Vinci system in that the AESOP part of ZEUS responds to voice commands. For example, a surgeon might say: AESOP move right. The positioning arm then would move right until the stop command was given. Like the da Vinci system, the other two arms of ZEUS are the extension of the left and right arms of the surgeon. Surgeons sit at a console and wear special glasses that create a three-dimensional image. Computer Motion has added a flexible wrist technology called Micro-Wrist, which is now included in FDA-approved clinical trials, Nolan says. There are currently more than 30 ZEUS units installed in North America, 15 units installed in Europe and the Middle East, and five units installed in Asia.